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A. NATIVE
AMERICANS A-1. The
peoples who were "native" to the Americas were probably
immigrants. From what countries do we believe they came? No one knows for sure how long ago the tribes that became known as "Native Americans" (native tribes, Indians) moved into North America. Probably they moved across a land bridge that joined Alaska and Russia over 30,000 years ago. Others may have come by dugouts, canoes or other boats. Modern DNA studies indicate they were probably from Mongolia and Siberia. Over thousands of years, they moved south to people North America and parts of South America. A-2.
Look at a geographic map of North America. Find the Mississippi River.
Look west to the Missouri River. What kind of land is west of the
Missouri? What large mountain formation runs roughly north-south? How
would this affect human settlement? The middle of the continent -- the Great Plains runs from north of the Canadian border south to Texas. This vast area was covered with tall grasses that supported herds of wild game, such as buffalo and antelope. These herds migrated with seasons -- south in the winter where weather was milder and food plants might still grow -- north in summer as the northern pastures sprouted grasses again. Wildfires from lightning storms could destroy some areas -- so could overgrazing -- drought -- floods. Such natural events caused the animals to be constantly on the move. If the people were to eat, they must follow the herds. A-3. Even
before Europeans arrived, native people were constantly moving. Yet
they had no horses. How would they move? What beasts of burden would
they use? How would this form of life effect the kinds of clothes they
wore, utensils, food preparation? People moved to follow the herds -- the source of food. They traveled by foot or by water in canoes or dugouts. They used dogs to carry travois -- long poles lashed to the sides of the animal and which dragged on the ground behind them and to which they could tie bundles. Tipis could be taken down or put up in minutes. Utensils had to be sturdy but light enough to be carried by either a person or a dog. Cooking utensils and storage containers also had to be light, serviceable and not easily broken. Southeastern tribes who lived in houses (Anasazi, Navajo, Hopi) made beautiful clay pots; but the Plains tribes (Blackfeet, Crow, Shoshoni) used tanned hides which were not easily crushed or broken. A-4. How
did the roles of men and women differ? In the Native American society, roles of men and women were very different. Both were honored and respected. Men were hunters and protectors. They usually cared for the horses and fashioned the weapons (bows, arrows, knives) as well as flutes and drums. They determined when the tribe would move. They waged war on their enemies. They taught the young boys and men the skills they would need. Usually, they passed on the stories and history of the tribe to the next generation. Since they had no written language, it was done orally and through pictographs (story pictures). The women were responsible for the small children, butchering, preserving and preparing food, gathering plant foods and herbs (and in some tribes, planting), carrying water, tanning hides, making clothing, gathering fuel for fires. They owned the tipis and were responsible for putting them up, taking them down, packing and unpacking. They taught the young girls the skills they needed to become wives and mothers. A-5. What
kinds of toys did Native American children have? What kinds of games
did they play? Why and how were they important? Native American children played many of the same games children do today -- games of tag and running. After the horse made its way across the continent, they learned to ride at a very early age. Many games were designed to develop skills they would need as adults. Boys learned to make their own bows and arrows. They learned to make snares for small game. Girls learned to make dolls and doll clothes to be able to make real clothes for their families. A girl might be married at age 12 or 13, a boy at 16 or 18, and they would be expected to be responsible for themselves. B. EARLY
EXPLORERS B-1.
Irish monks and Norse Vikings both made their way to the eastern coast
of the American continent even before Christopher Columbus
"discovered" the continent for Spain. Ships from the Orient
sailed along the West Coast. What other countries came to explore the
American continent? Why? In addition to Spain, France, Russia and England were the major explorers on the continent; the Netherlands a lesser player. Each country was looking for riches although each had a different idea of what that might be. Spain looked for mineral wealth -- particularly gold. England looked to America as an outlet that could solve her overpopulation problem and as a location to dump convicts and beggars. France and Russia hunted the country for its furs -- another form of wealth. Maps from the 1700s show the continent claimed by European powers -- Spain along the southeast coast and southern coast of the North American continent (what is now Florida, Texas) and along the western coast (California); Russia along the northwest coast (Oregon, Washington); England north (what is now Canada) and the northeast coastline; France the central part of the continent and -- very important -- New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi River. B-2. The
exchange of cultures -- European and native American -- had a major
effect on both cultures. How did they change each other? What happens
when cultures clash today? Spanish conquistadors traveled as self-sufficient groups, complete with animals -- chickens, sheep, goats and horses. Chickens, sheep and goats were quickly adopted by southern agricultural tribes. But the horse made the biggest difference. Natives quickly realized the advantage of a four-footed animal that could carry a man many miles. The horse completely changed the Plains Indians' lifestyle. They could travel further. They could hunt larger animals with more success. (Think: how would you catch buffalo, deer or antelope without horses?) Horses could carry larger burdens. This meant families could have bigger tipis and more possessions. The Europeans also brought iron, guns and gunpowder. Native Americans taught the Europeans about native foods -- corn, tomatoes, chocolate, pumpkins -- which were taken back to Europe. They taught them how to survive on the land and the universal sign language. But when land is at question, cultures clash. The
Spanish conquistadors exploited the human population -- turning
natives into virtual slaves or serfs. The Europeans also introduced
diseases to which the natives had no immunity -- smallpox and syphilis
killed thousands of natives within a few years. Some tribes completely
disappeared in less than a decade. B-3. What
town lay at the mouth of the Mississippi River? Why were the town and
the river important? France controlled New Orleans, and all river traffic from the interior of the continent flowed into the Mississippi River. There was no other easy way to get goods -- furs & pelts -- out of the central part of the continent without going down the Mississippi because all interior rivers flow to the Mississippi. (The Rocky Mountains -- find them on a map -- include a geologic split called the Great Divide. Here the waters flow off the mountains two directions -- east and west. But there are only a few major rivers that flow to the coasts. B-4. What
was the attitude of early explorers toward the native tribes? How did
attitudes differ with nationalities? The French treated the native tribes with more respect than most Europeans, often as partners and equals. They tended to learn from them -- how to live off the harsh land, where to find the fur-bearing animals, how to tan hides, how to stay alive in the harsh winters. They often married women of the tribes. This helped cement working relationships. The Spanish usually came in as "conquerors," destroying native lifestyles and setting up new ones, in conjunction with the Roman Catholic church. B-5. From
the very beginning, explorers hunted for rivers that would allow ships
to sail across the continent. Why? Look at a map of the United States.
How many large rivers flow from the East Coast to the West Coast? If
you have older maps (pre-1806), is there a difference in the geography
(rivers and mountains) shown? How would these geographic features
effect travel? How would they effect growth? The Orient was the gateway to the spice industry, to porcelain, fine silks and woven rugs. Spices were more important in the 1700s and 1800s because they helped preserve foods (and hide the taste of tainted food) in a time when canning and freezing had not yet been invented. The American continents were in the way. If an East-West river system could be found, it would allow easier access to the Orient and open up the entire continent for "civilization." The East-West rivers that the explorers hoped for did not exist, but they did not know that. The Rocky Mountain range was the big divider in the West, along with the smaller ranges along the Pacific Coast. But no one knew that until 1803. The Mississippi River was also a barrier although it allowed north-south transportation. C.
EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS C-1.
Where were the first permanent settlements in America? From what
country/countries were they? The first permanent settlements (colonies) were along the east and southern coasts -- English (northeast), Spanish (southeast), French (south). C-2. What
conditions in Europe would cause people to go to America in the 1700s?
A great many of the people were rebels, outcasts and opportunists -- convicts from England, explorers hunting for gold and silver or other riches, people whose religions were out-of-favor, people who had nothing to lose at home. In England, second sons who could not inherit their fathers' lands (the first son got everything by law) were often sent to America with funds to purchase lands for plantations. Many Scottish men came as traders, working the southern part of the continent (Alabama, Georgia), marrying women of the native tribes (Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee, Creek, Seminole) and bringing the English-Scottish culture with them. These tribes became known as the Five Civilized Tribes and were often well educated and cultured after the European fashion -- long before other areas. C-3. What
was the American Revolution? How did it affect Europe? Many Englishmen who came to America were fiercely independent. Many families had been forced to leave for religious, political or financial reasons. Also, England exploited America's rich resources. The American colonies were required by law to sell their raw materials (such as wool and linen) to England, and then buy them back as finished goods at high rates. All commerce flowed first to England so that colonists were not free to do business with other countries. Other imported goods, such as tea -- then the beverage of choice --, were heavily taxed by England. The American Revolution was the colonists' declaration that they would no longer conduct business through another country. When they declared themselves independent in 1775, they were only a small spot on the northeast coast of the continent. The monarchs and rulers of Europe thought it laughable that such people would think they could govern themselves. It was not until 1783 that the United States was actually recognized as a nation. No doubt the American Revolution planted the seeds of the French Revolution. C-4. What
part did the European monarchy play in opening the American West? Thomas Jefferson became third president of the United States in 1801 -- only 18 years after the United States had been officially recognized. He was a plantation owner and intellectual who frequently traveled to Europe. He brought many foods and customs from Europe to the North American continent. He was also an inventor and a great reader. Jefferson looked at the growing group of people on the coast -- at the ships constantly docking, the people stepping off the boats to make a new life. He saw the frontier families multiplying -- their children starting their own families. He saw people moving steadily west, building farms and homes. He knew they would only stop when they hit a major barrier. That first major barrier was the Mississippi River. The River belonged to France -- and so did the land beyond it. A treaty with France allowed Americans to use the river for commerce, but the treaty would expire in 1800. What if Napoleon, Emperor of France, decided to cancel the treaty or sell to an unfriendly country? Jefferson decided the United States must gain control of the river and of the important port (New Orleans) at its mouth. He sent envoys to Napoleon asking to purchase New Orleans. Napoleon had been fighting wars on more than one military front. He was desperately short of funds. Instead of offering to sell New Orleans, he offered to sell all of France's holdings in the New World -- New Orleans and all Louisiana (the American West) -- 827,987 square miles -- for 80 million francs (about $15 million). Jefferson could hardly believe his luck, and not everyone was as enthusiastic about the opportunity. Some citizens opposed it because no one knew what was out there in the wilderness. But Jefferson managed to get the financial support needed. By 1803, Louisiana Territory was part of the United States. The United States had gained a new frontier -- the American West. C-5. Who
were Lewis & Clark? What role did they play in opening the West?
What young girl accompanied Lewis & Clark? Jefferson hired Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to set up an expedition to the West. A group of about 29 men and one young native American girl of 14 set out in 1803. Jefferson hoped to find a river system that would lead to the West Coast. He also wanted to know who was out there --French, Russian, native tribes -- and what was going on. They also took hundreds of samples of birds, plants and animals. They made it to the northwest coast with great difficulty. They had traveled 6,000 miles in 28 months. They reported there was no easy river passage east to west. But there was land -- more wild game no one could even imagine -- herds of bison so large they took days to pass, flocks of doves that blackened the skies, vast prairies of grass that extended for miles. The young woman with them was Sacagawea, a young girl -- Shoshone or Hidatsa -- wife of one of the trappers and interpreters. She gave birth to a baby boy early during the expedition. Folk stories say Sacagawea helped them find their way when lost in the wilderness, rescued supplies and records during a flood and found edible plants when no game could be found. She is much honored in America, and more statues have been made of her than any other woman in the U.S. C-6. What
was the result of the Lewis & Clark expedition? Lewis & Clark met with many Indian tribes along the way and set up diplomatic relations with them. They described the conditions and the land in their journals. It was clear the land could be traveled -- that there was rich land -- and plenty of game that could be turned into money on the open market. Some members of the expedition stayed on in the mountains to become trappers. D.
TRAPPERS, TRADERS AND SCOUTS D-1. How
did European fashion of the early 1800s affect the American West? Europe was fur-hungry. Beaver fur hats were the rage in Europe, and women adorned their clothes with furs. Pelts of marten, mink, skunk, raccoon, bison -- all could be sold for fur coats and hats in Europe and Russia. D-2. Who
were the trappers? Half the trappers were native Americans. The rest were French-Canadians and mixed bloods. D-3. What
were the biggest dangers in the wilderness? An independent trapper could make a good living, but it was dangerous. Many trappers disappeared in the wilderness, never heard from again. Weather, animals, natives, accidents -- all took their toll. In a sudden winter storm in the mountains, a man could quickly freeze to death. Grizzly bears were short-tempered and not afraid of a man. Rifle barrels were always exploding and causing injuries. Native Indians, who generally only hunted what they could eat and wear themselves and enough for a few trade goods, were not happy about their lands being trapped out by hunters. Trappers were literally taking the food out of their tribes' mouths. A lone trapper -- or even a pair -- were no match for a hunting party. Trapper John Colter was warned to stay out of the Indians' hunting territory. In 1808, he and a partner were trapping in disputed territory when natives surrounded them. Colter's partner was shot; Colter was given the chance to escape by running for his life -- which he did. Naked, without shoes or weapons, he outran and outwitted the Indians. He made his way back to the nearest fort -- 200 miles -- more dead than alive. Within six weeks, he returned to the wilderness to continue trapping. (Question: Why do you think a man would return to the wilderness after such an ordeal?) D-4. Did
trappers always work alone? Good trappers were intelligent and skilled men who knew their craft. They had to be good businessmen too to get good prices for their furs. Some worked together in teams. A few, like Jim Bridger, set up their own companies and hired other trappers to work for them. D-5. What
was the rendezvous and how did it change wilderness trapping and
hunting? Trapping and preparing the pelts was a full-time job. An independent trapper had to provide his own horses, ammunition, traps and supplies. It was a risky economic venture. Many men married Indian women in order to have help with the work. When the hides were prepared, they had to transport them to the nearest fort or trading post (often 500 miles' distance) and negotiate ("dicker") with the buyers. If the buyer had already purchased more than what he needed, the price could be low. In the 1820s, a businessman by the name of William Ashley (American Fur Company) changed set up a "rendavoze" (rendezvous) system that changed the pattern of mountain trade. A spot in the mountains was chosen for a summer get-together. All trappers and traders were invited to bring their furs. Ashley would arrive at the site with manufactured goods to trade -- blankets, guns, gunpowder, knives, traps. From 1825-1840, the annual rendezvous was the biggest event in the West. Indians, whites, travelers joined in the shooting matches, horse races, gambling matches, dances and drinking matches that lasted days. D-6. What
happened as more men went into the American frontier to trap and hunt?
The best places were soon trapped out. This changed the ecology of many areas. (For example, when beaver were trapped out, they no longer built dams on streams to form ponds. Plants, fish and birds that made their home in these ponds died out.) The trappers moved further into the wilderness, hunting for better sites, encroaching on Native American hunting lands. Native Americans were forced to hunt for other sites themselves -- or to fight the trappers. As each tribe moved, they encountered other tribes, which were also forced to move. Dozens of tribes changed locations and hunting grounds -- west, north and south. (Note: How is this similar to what happened in Europe?) D-7. How
did trapping change in the 1830s? By the 1830s, many companies had formed and began hiring and supplying trappers in exchange for their yearly catch. The biggest were the American Fur Company, owned by John Jacob Astor, who later sold out to Pierre Chouteau Jr., a French trading family with interests and posts throughout the West. To the north, was the English-based Hudson's Bay Company, which dominated the Canadian and northwest lands. They hoped by keeping the country closely hunted, they would keep out the Americans, whom they feared would colonize the Canadian lands. D-8. Who
else explored the American West during 1800-1830? The government sent out many men to map and explore the territory in all directions. Most were military men, who studied the geography and geology of the land, where the Indian tribes were, and which might be the best routes East and South. Many early trappers who had traveled the West joined these expeditions as guides. D-9. What
was the American West like? The American West is a vast land that ranges from high mountain ranges with heavy winter snows to huge stretches of flat grasslands. There are high deserts with little rainfall and thick pine forests on the lower mountain ranges. Then there were the rumors of strange areas where water boiled up out of the ground and waterfalls fell thousands of feet (what is now Yellowstone National Park). When mountain man Jim Bridger described the area to his friends back in St. Louis, they grinned and called him a liar. The rivers that flow through the mountains are often swift and clear, fed by the winter snows. But the further from the mountains to the east, they become slow, filled with the silt of the prairies, until they are often completely dry. In 1820, Stephen Long -- sent West on a military-scientific expedition -- reported that the region between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains was "wholly unfit for cultivation." Long first used the term "The Great American Desert." Actually, he was right. The area did not have enough rainfall to support agriculture as people knew it then, and there was no technology to overcome the problem. Despite these unfavorable conditions -- and the problems of native Americans who were growing less friendly as more Europeans moved into their hunting territory -- people were looking for a new life and willing to take chances. D-10.
What about the Southwest? The Southwest has a different history. The land is just as varied, with even more deserts. It borders Mexico, and part of it was still owned by Spain. Santa Fe (now in New Mexico) was a sleepy Indian/Mexican village in 1821 when Capt. William Becknell headed southwest with a mule pack train of goods to trade. The 800-mile trail from Missouri was dangerous. It crossed mountains and deserts and Apache and Comanche Indian lands. The tribes had grown to hate both Spanish and Americans. Texas -- considered part of the Southwest -- belonged to Mexico. But Mexico's citizens were not much interested in settling the rather barren lands, and American colonists were let in. By 1831, more than 5,500 peopled Texas. Five years later, the Republic of Texas declared itself independent. It became part of the United States in 1845 -- not because the United States wanted it especially, but because they feared Texas might become a British colony if they did not agree to make it a state. E. COMING
TO AMERICA: THE IMMIGRANTS E-1. From
what countries did immigrants come after 1800? When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, Europe's citizens looked to the New World for opportunity. In 1820, record-keeping began when ships' masters were required to report arriving alien passengers. (The term immigrant was not used until 1868.) Germany: During the 1800s, Germans were the largest single group of immigrants. (However, the term "German" included several religious and regional groups.) German farmers faced overpopulation, and skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers and farmers headed to America. Farmers went west until they found land, especially in the upper Midwest where conditions were right to grow grains (wheat, rye). Ireland: Irish peasants were dying from hunger; their staple crop, potatoes, had been hit by a terrible blight. In the 1840s, nearly a million Irish immigrated to America -- about 45% of all immigrants in that decade. It peaked again in the 1880s. They usually found jobs in the northeastern cities. They did not go south, because there were few factory jobs, and there was a large pool of cheap farm labor (black and white). England: English factory workers looked for jobs in America with higher pay. Many who favored farming moved to the Midwest. There were many recruits to Mormonism among the English; and by 1890, one out of seven residents of Salt Lake City was English born. Scandinavians (Norwegians, Swedes, Danes): Many were forced out of their homelands by exploding populations and a shortage of good farmland. After the Civil War (1865-1868), they came in large numbers. Chinese: Most settled along the West Coast, but many would move inland to work on the railroads in the 1860s. Note: Many nationalities did not come in large numbers until after 1900: Central and Eastern Europe (Slavs, Poles, Czechs, Serbs and Slovenes); Italians, Canadians, Russians, Finlanders. F. WEST BY WAGON F-1. What
were the natural barriers that kept people from moving West? Families first moved to areas near rivers or good water sources. White settlements sprung up along the Mississippi, Missouri and Arkansas rivers. Look at a geographical map; from these points, a vast flat land stretches out -- the Great Plains -- miles of flat land with little water. A direct route would kill livestock. Beyond the Plains rose the Rocky Mountains, stretching north into Canada and far south. To be caught in a blizzard in the mountains meant almost certain death for a wagon train. (The horrors of the Donner Party in 1846-47 are a good example; those who survived had to resort to cannibalism.) F-2. When did families start to move into the American West? Citizens had heard there were fertile lands beyond the Rockies -- California and the Northwest Coast -- "Ouragon." The U.S. government was eager for settlers to move West and settle the land to keep Russia or Britain from claiming it. Military spies made their way to the West Coast in 1836. It was not until 1842 that the first wagon train made its way west -- 107 pioneers, 18 wagons, assorted cattle and dogs. F-3. What
was the general route West? Thousands of wagons made their way West during the 1840s-1860s. The wagon trains began at Independence, Missouri, the westernmost settlement on the main American frontier, went north to the south bank of the Platte River, following the valley to Fort Laramie (Wyoming). By this time, they had usually had their share of dust, rainstorms, sickness, food filled with insects, cooking over campfires, fear of Indians, short tempers and walking. Some turned back at this point. Those who continued went along the Sweetwater River and crossed the Continental Divide at South Pass, 7,500 feet above sea level. Then they dipped south to Fort Bridger and on to Fort Hall. The trail swung along the Snake River, past Fort Boise, on to Columbia by way of the Blue Mountains. There was a 60-mile stretch between the Dalles and the Willamette where the settlers had to inch themselves over the Cascade Mountains and lower the wagons by means of cable. Or they could shoot a terrifying rapids on rafts. F-4. Why
did they not go by boat? There was no waterway passage to travel West by boat. In later years steamboats managed to move a long way into the interior, but as they moved up the rivers, they grew too shallow for large boats. Canoes could be handled in shallow water; but the rivers frequently dried up so the canoes had to be carried (portaged) across land to the nearest river to continue. To sail from the East Coast around South America was dangerous -- icebergs and storms were common, and the trip could take 18 months. Once the Panama Canal was built, the trip was cut in half. But malaria lurked in Panama, and a wagon train could make it West -- if nothing went wrong -- in only three months. F-5.
Since there were no roads, how did travelers know the way West? The mountain men and guides knew the trails well. Unusual geographic formations (such as Independence Rock, Wyoming) served as markers along the way. Journals and books were published about the lands on the fertile West Coast lands. A few authors who detailed how to get to this promised land had never been west of the Mississippi; some wagon trains that followed their instructions died from thirst in the Salt Lake Basin. By the time the government hired John C. Fremont in 1843 to mark a trail to Oregon, it was too late: Fremont found thousands of people on the trail ahead of him. It was the beginning of large-scale migration West. Several military scouts published guidebooks. They gave detailed descriptions with distances from one stop to another. A good book described pasture, springs, unusual geographic formations and campsites. Sadness also marked the route -- possessions abandoned as livestock grew weak from pulling too-heavy loads -- parlor stoves, dining tables, sewing machines, trunks and books. Saddest of all were the graves of those who died along the way -- some from accidents, Indian attacks, exposure, childbirth -- but more from diseases -- dysentery, cholera, measles, malaria. As the number of wagons grew over the next few years, there was still another sign -- wagon ruts cut deep into the soil, leaving trenches that did not disappear. There are still places where the 150-year-old tracks can be seen. F-6. What
was the trail West like? Early emigrants described watering spots and camp spots as clear and clean. Within a year or two, these stopping points had become mud puddles and filthy swamps. Grass was at first plentiful for cattle and livestock. But the land was soon grazed out, so that travelers had to keep seeking new trails. G. THE
MORMONS G-1. What
was the importance of the Mormons? The Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) played a major role in settling down the West from its rough-and-ready independence. Mormonism began in New York, but the people were persecuted and driven from their homes. Steadily they moved West until the spring 1847 when they struck out from Missouri, headed for the barren Salt Lake Valley (in what is now Utah). The first "emigration" included 1,553 people, 556 wagons, oxen, sheep and 716 chickens. Most wagon trains were a loose group of strangers headed the same direction. But the Mormons were well organized under the leadership of Brigham Young. Young believed the church and its leaders were supreme, and that Mormons were to function as a community, not as individuals on their own. Young saw to it that each group that immigrated to Salt Lake City included people with specific skills -- herdsmen, stone masons, carpenters. The Salt Lake Basin was a desert of gravelly soil, without trees, with violent winds, subzero winters, rattlesnakes and grasshoppers. As soon as they arrived, they began breaking the land and digging ditches for water irrigation. The community (rather than the individual) owned everything -- water, timber, land. The church gave out lots and farmland according to need. The first winter they survived on thistles and sego lily roots. But by 1852, they had constructed 1,000 miles of irrigation ditches. Because they made friends with the native tribes in the area, they did not have problems with the Indians. As a result of their communal approach to frontier living and their dedication to hard work, the Mormons created prosperous communities within only a few years. G-2. What
effect did the California gold rush have on the Mormons? When gold was accidentally discovered in California in 1849, men --and some women -- rushed West to hunt for instant riches. Probably 15,000 stopped in Salt Lake City to repair wagons, replace livestock and buy more supplies in 1849 and 1850. This was an economic boon to the Mormon community. They expanded their efforts to bring more people West. They built more communities, expanding all directions. H.
TRANSPORTATION H-1. How
did people send messages or packages from one coast to the other? Before the 1850s, most mail and correspondence went by ship around South America and up the western coast. This could take 18 months. Mail and freight went up the river on steamboats -- then into the interior by freight wagons pulled by oxen or mules. It could also be sent with military expeditions, but there were no guarantees it would be delivered. The federal government knew that communication was critical. They offered subsidies to companies that would find faster ways to deliver mail. In 1849, the U.S. Mail Steamship Company and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company began cross-Panama service. Postage rates averaged 50 cents an ounce. In 1850, a pack train carried monthly mail from Independence, Missouri, to Salt Lake City, Utah. The next year, service was extended to California. There was trouble with snowstorms and Indians. In 1857, the Overland Mail Company was formed to provide mail service between St. Louis and San Francisco. It took 25 days to deliver mail. Passenger service was added the next year. Riding a stagecoach was bumpy and uncomfortable. Nine people were crowded inside the stagecoach. The rest stops -- every 10-15 miles apart -- were bare huts with dollar-a-plate meals that would discourage even a hardy appetite. This southern route was abandoned when the Civil War broke out in 1861. Attempts at a central route across the states were unsuccessful. The Pony Express was organized in 1860 between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. Young riders (orphans preferred) were hired to carry the mail on the best ponies. They promised to deliver letters in 10 days on a weekly schedule. Price was $5 an ounce. Each rider traveled 35-75 miles a run, using three horses. Only 18 months after the Express began, telegraph lines connected the two sides of the continent. The Pony Express closed down. H-2. When
were railroads built? It was 1858 when the first railroad reached the Missouri River. By 1865 the Missouri Pacific completed a line between St. Louis and Kansas City. There had been talk of railroads all across the continent since 1845. In 1853, Congress passed the Pacific Railroad Survey Act to find a practical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Four routes were surveyed, but the Civil War made a central route the only possible choice. The government gave the railroad land along the route that could be sold to raise money. The government also issued bonds to provide loans to the railroad companies. Two companies began work --one building west from California, the other building from the east. They met each other in May 1869 in Utah. When the two joined rails, Americans could travel from one coast to another -- farmers and ranchers could ship goods to more distant markets and command better prices for their produce. A true national commerce opened up. H-3. Was
the transcontinental railroad the only railroad? A southern railroad was completed in 1882-83. Because the northern route was more rugged, it was not completed until 1893.
H-4. What
obstacles sometimes slowed down train travel? Heavy snows in the mountains often trapped trains. Passengers had to help dig out of high drifts. Large herds of buffalo blocked trains through the prairies. Indians too sometimes attacked a train crossing their hunting grounds. I.
SLAVERY & CIVIL WAR I-1. How
did the issue of slavery affect the American West? The issue of slavery (usually referring to black slaves in the South) affected politics and events in the United States from its beginning. The idea was to maintain a balance between "slave states" and "free states" (those where no slaves were allowed). The Missouri Compromise of 1820 drew an imaginary horizontal line across the continent (at 36o, 30'). The geographic location of a new territory determined if it were slave or free. But states where the imaginary line cut through (such as California and Kansas) presented problems. In 1854 proslavery squatters from Missouri crossed the border into the new Kansas territory and founded towns. Antislavery groups set up towns nearby. Guerrilla warfare broke out between the two groups. Only the Colorado gold strikes in 1858 directed attention away from the trouble there. Three years later, southern states began to secede (break away) from the union. I-2. Was
the American West involved in the Civil War? Not everyone thought the issue that divided the country into Civil War in 1861-1865 was slavery. Some -- particularly those in the West -- said it was a matter of independence. A man -- or a state -- should have the right to choose his own destiny. Economics played a part. The North had begun to outstrip the South in industry, railroads, population and potential. Hard feelings erupted into war. Most Civil War battles were fought in the South, Midwest and Texas. Even though there were few battles in the American West, it was still affected. Hundreds of citizens joined the ranks of soldiers on both sides. Hundreds of others who did not want to fight moved West to avoid joining the ranks of soldiers. The gold that miners dug from the hills in California, Colorado and Montana was sent East to help pay for the war. In the northern Plains, Native American tribes were making a last stand against settlers moving into their hunting grounds and across their land. But a government under siege could not be expected to pay too much attention to a handful of Indian tribes and immigrant settlers who refused to abide by treaties. Its men were needed on the front lines of the national battle. The West was affected by the Civil War more after it was over. Confederate soldiers -- whose homes and lives had been destroyed by the war -- moved West to start over. Bitter from their losses, many became outlaws. J.
OUTLAWS & LAWMEN J-1. Were
there really more outlaws on the frontier than in the East? There were probably more dishonest men, thieves and outlaws in the East. But in the American West, the outlaws grew to be romantic -- heroes, larger than life -- a sign of the common man "thumbing his nose" at his betters. They were often portrayed as New World Robin Hoods -- helping neighbors in need, robbing from the rich to give to the poor. Newspapers, magazines and novels made them seem more like either true heroes or evil villains. It was true that many outlaws were attracted to the Western frontier. It was easy to rob stagecoaches, wagon trains and railroad trains in the vast frontier where there were few lawmen and fewer jails. Outlaws set up shelters and hideouts in remote areas. An informal "Outlaw Trail" ran from the Canadian border (north) to Mexico (south). Hideouts were spaced a day's ride apart, and the outlaws knew where they were. Any friend could take advantage of a site when it was needed. Remote areas, such as Wyoming, served as a home base. Bartenders at nearby saloons and merchants in the closest towns usually knew the outlaws by sight. But silence was valued, and so was the outlaw's business. (Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid had a "hideout" only a few miles from Thermopolis. They often came to town for a drink at the local saloons.) As long as they left their neighbors and nearby towns alone, they were treated as anyone else. There were far too many people -- even those who were supposed to be respectable -- who came West who did not want their past looked into too closely. In fact, on the frontier, it was considered improper manners to ask a person his last name unless he offered it. A popular song -- "What was your name in the states?" -- acknowledged that when a man came West, he often left a lot behind him, including his real identity. J-2. Were
many outlaws shot or hanged? The railroads put a reward on the heads of train robbers, and bounty hunters searched them down. As more outlaws moved into the remote towns, trouble grew. There was trouble too from cowboys, who liked to drink too much on Saturday nights. Territories, then towns, began to hire people to keep things orderly and quiet. They hired men who knew how to shoot guns and who understood outlaws -- often another outlaw. Sometimes these reformed outlaws were excellent law enforcers. Sometimes they were not -- even helping pull off jobs with the outlaws. Jails were built in towns, and there were occasionally public hangings. These hangings were big social events when entire communities turned out to watch. The guilty man was expected to repent of his sins (although not all did so). K. CATTLE
RANCHING & COWBOYS K-1.
Why did the cattlemen find the West attractive? Cattlemen were the first to exploit the new frontier. The Great Plains and high mountain deserts had excellent pastures for grazing animals even through winter. In the 1850s, former mountain men (turned businessmen) bought the worn-out animals of emigrants on their way to Oregon. They fattened them in the grasslands in southern Wyoming's Green River valley. They considered the unclaimed and unsettled pastureland "public domain" -- free to be used by the person who got there first. From 1867 to 1885, a true "cattle kingdom" grew up in the West. There was a demand: after the Civil War, Americans in the cities developed a taste for fine beef. (Until then, most Americans ate pork.) And there was a supply: Texans returned to find the hardy Texas Longhorns -- descendants from Spanish cattle -- grazing over thousands of acres of land. Some cattlemen drove their herds into Colorado and Montana to sell beef at top prices directly to the miners in the camps where gold and silver flowed freely. But the major markets lay East -- Chicago, New York -- or West -- San Francisco. Railroads were literally hundreds -- sometimes thousands -- of miles from the pasturelands. K-2.
So how did the cattle get to market? Southern cattlemen (mainly Texas) cut trails north through Indian Territory to "railheads" (loading stations) in Kansas, where they were shipped out (usually to Chicago) to be butchered. If prices were down, they drove the herds north into Wyoming and Montana to pasture until prices rose. Northern cattlemen (Wyoming, Montana) headed west to Oregon or sometimes south to Kansas, depending upon the Indian situation at the time. At first beef were sent "on the hoof" (live). But when refrigerated railroad cars were invented, animals were butchered at the railheads and the carcasses transported to butchers, processors and meat-packing companies. K-3. What
were the trail rides like? There was nothing attractive about a trail drive. The drive was dusty, and men slept in the open, ready at a moment' notice to jump on his horse at any sign of trouble. The boss (ramrod) chose the route and was responsible for seeing the cattle were delivered to the railroad loading point. The cook was an essential part of the trip. A good cook could make the trip tolerable, while a poor cook made it a nightmare. Food was usually limited -- stews, beans, cornbread, coffee, biscuits and bacon -- things that could be carried in the back of a wagon (chuck wagon) and cooked over an open flame or coals. Any cowboy who complained about the quality of food usually got to cook the next meal. K-4. Who
were the cowboys? Hired hands, "cowboys," kept the cattle moving north. These free spirits were all nationalities -- Indians, Mexicans, blacks, Caucasians -- mostly uneducated farm boys, former Civil War soldiers and drifters. It was hard work, suited mostly for young men. Cowboys might stay in the saddle 36 hours at a stretch. They risked their lives in stampedes, blizzards, swollen rivers, alkali water and Indian attacks. For this, they were paid $15-$20 a month plus board. Their clothing and working gear was adapted from the Mexican vaqueros -- rawhide rope, big-horned saddles, large hats, spurs, chaps. K-5. Was
cattle ranching limited to small operations? Even before the Civil War, gentleman ranchers built up herds in the northern West. Many came from wealthy British families. Eastern capitalists set up large "land and cattle" conglomerates. They built fine houses and model ranches. Some, such as Swan Company of Wyoming, owned hundreds of thousands of cattle. By 1879, cattle raising was one of the fastest growing business investments. No one thought about how such numbers would affect the land. (Question: How would it affect the land?) Nor did they understand the unpredictable cycles of rainfall and drought in the West. K-6. Why
did the industry decline? Severe blizzards and low temperatures hit the West in 1885-1886. The following summer was hot and dry. There was little grass on the pastures to support the herds, and animals were in poor condition as winter came on. January of 1887 was the worst blizzard ever recorded -- 30-foot snowdrifts and temperatures at -50oF. Cattle drifted in the storms, piled up along the barbed-wire fences and froze to death. When the thaw came in spring, ranchers discovered they had lost half their cattle. Many big companies -- heavily in debt for their cattle and operations -- closed down. There had been 9 million cattle in Wyoming in 1886. By 1895 it had dropped to 3 million. From this point, cattle ranching changed from open-range to a closed ranch, with barbed-wire boundaries and control to prevent overgrazing. K-7.
Was there a sheep industry? Sheep ranching had begun in New Mexico and California. In the 1870s, it expanded into Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. There were sheep drives to feedlots and rail loading points, much like the cattle industry. But cattlemen hated them. Sheep cropped the open-range grasslands so closely cattle could not graze on it for years. Hard feelings were made worse when so many immigrants (Basques) became sheepherders. It was not uncommon for a traveler to discover a flock scattering across the fields and the body of the shepherd nearby, supposedly "killed by rustlers." Eventually the possible profit in beef exceeded that of sheep and wool, and the sheep industry became less important. L.
HOMESTEADING L-1. What
was the Homestead Act of 1862? America wanted the West settled. Farmers saw it as a place to expand. Immigrants saw it as a place to start fresh. Eastern working men believed settlers in the West would mean higher wages and better conditions for themselves. (Question: Why do you think they believed this?) President Abraham Lincoln signed the Homestead Act in 1862. It gave a settler -- male or female -- title to 160 acres if he or she lived on the land for five years and made certain improvements. Thousands of people went West to claim their land. And many returned a few years later, broken by the harsh conditions of the land itself. L-2. What
caused trouble between homesteaders, sheepmen and cattlemen? Homesteaders sought out the most fertile land -- preferably near water. It was the same land that cattlemen needed to raise cattle. There was bound to be trouble. Homesteaders fenced off their lands with the new barbed wire (first patented in 1870) to protect their crops. Cattle ranchers sent their cowboys out to cut the fences so cattle could get to the water, and the war was on. Cattlemen harassed homesteaders and even hanged them. Farmers shot -- and often butchered -- cattle that trampled their gardens and crops. In the end, the farmer won, continuing to push West. L-3. What
was farm life like on the small frontier farm? The conditions under which the farmer and his family lived were among the poorest in the country. How could he build a house if there was no wood (and there was no wood on thousands of acres?) In rocky areas, stone and mud made sturdy homes. In desert areas, the earth could be fashioned into bricks or used as plaster. In areas with grass, the ground was cut into blocks with a horse-drawn plow (or a man-drawn plow) and used in place of bricks or stone. Long rows of the sod formed the roof. These buildings usually had dirt floors. They were cool in summer, fireproof and might last as much as 10 years in a dry climate. But they were dusty, and the family shared them with insects, rattlesnakes and other creatures. Water had to be hauled -- by bucket if a family was close to water, but most likely by barrels in a wagon. Town might be a day or more away by horse or wagon. Trips to town were few -- usually to trade for necessary foodstuffs, seed for crops or a piece of equipment. Occasionally a woman was allowed a bolt of calico fabric to make dresses and shirts for the children. Mail came only occasionally, delivered to the post office, which was usually the general store in town. In the 1890s, mail order catalogs created an entire new industry. Even the poorest homes had a catalog and could see what people with money could buy. It changed the buying habits in remote areas -- at least for those who were moderately successful. M. TOWNS M-1. When
did towns begin to form in the West? In many areas, towns grew up literally overnight. In Oklahoma Territory, the land was settled by "land runs." People lined up at a starting point on horses, in wagons or on foot; at the sound of a gunshot, they took off across the prairie and "staked out" a piece of land they wanted. In some areas, town lots were laid out ahead of the run so that people knew exactly where the streets would be. Within hours, tents sprang up for shelter. Within a day or two, houses were being built. In one Oklahoma Territory run, the first bank opened in a tent; a metal stove served as the vault. In other areas, such as the northern Plains, the railroad brought the "town" with them. The railroad was pushing ahead of white civilization. As it built West, it had to be able to supply workers with food, shelter, protection, even entertainment. The work trains included everything from dining cars to sleeping arrangements -- a town on wheels, including a daily newspaper. Hunters were hired to keep the workers supplied with meat. (They were so good at it, that within only a few years, they wiped out the vast herds of buffalo that had roamed the prairies.) Workers had money, and many groups liked to find ways to help them spend it -- gamblers, saloonkeepers and others of less repute. They followed the trains and set up business wherever the train stopped for a few days. When the train pulled out, they moved with it; but others stayed, and many of these temporary towns became permanent. Some Western towns were created by lottery. Others sprang up naturally, usually because it was near a wagon road, river crossing, crossroads or an Army fort. M-2. Who
were the first to open businesses in towns? The first businesses to open in Western towns were the saloons. Although a saloon might be nothing more than a shack with a few tables and chairs, there were also saloons so fancy they sported imported European backbars, elegant wallpapers, fancy liquors -- and even a stage for traveling shows. The early West was more than 95-percent male. Their shelters were likely to leave a lot to be desired. The saloon was warm when a man's cabin might be lonely and cold. Travelers brought news from around the country. Neighbors might buy a man a drink when he was down on his luck -- and he could always pass the time with a game of cards. It was the community social club, and everyone was welcome -- from the local gravedigger to the lawyer. A general store answered the needs of the specific area -- supplies for farmers or miners or families going west. A weekly newspaper was quickly set up to provide news. A livery stable kept animals overnight, usually with a blacksmith to replace a missing horseshoe or repair tack. A laundry -- often a "Chinese" laundry -- took care of shirts and winter underwear. The barbershop provided a shave, a haircut, and often a bath, were a man inclined. A hotel -- usually with little more than a bed and mattress -- would put up travelers at night. Depending upon the shortage of beds, a man might be expected to share it with a stranger. Once women moved into the remote areas, boarding houses were common. There a man might get a home-cooked meal three times a day plus a bed with sheets -- true luxuries on the frontier.
N. WHITE
MAN V. RED MAN N-1. Why
did relations between Native Americans and white settlers become
difficult? The natives had welcomed the early explorers and trappers. Yet these white strangers took more than their share, including the best hunting grounds. The buffalo -- whose herds had numbered in the thousands and upon which the Plains Indians depended -- were wiped out by overzealous hunters. Treaties and boundaries were constantly ignored by the white man. Now, the federal government was determined that the Indians settle down and become farmers on the land it "gave" them. But men in the Eastern government did not understand that the land was often so poor nothing would grow on it. Nor did they realize that many of the Plains Indians felt that farming actually defiled their "Mother Earth." In the end, the Native Americans were forced into becoming dependent upon the government for regular rations of beef and other basic foodstuffs. Even that "handout" was often so spoiled or rancid that it could not be eaten. If the Indians were to eat at all they were forced to find food off the reservation. To do so violated their treaties and allowed the government to wage continual war against a conquered people. N-2. What
happened to the Native American tribes? In the early 1800s, land was set aside as Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). Many tribes were forced to trade their homes and lands for new land in this area. Here, they were told, they would be free to live as they wished, and the white men would not bother them. The Five Civilized Tribes were forced to leave their homes at gunpoint and walk hundreds of miles to the new land with little but their clothes on their back. Many froze to death on the way. They left behind fine homes and possessions. Some tribes who refused -- particularly the tribes of the northern Plains -- tried to escape. The Nez Perces headed for Canada, almost made it but were massacred in 1864. The Northern Cheyenne were forced to join the Southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory but escaped to their homelands. Some land was also set aside as Western reservations in Idaho, Oregon, New Mexico, the Dakotas and Wyoming. The U.S. government paid little attention to the traditions of the tribes. In several cases, they promised the same land to two tribes. The Shoshoni and Arapahoe -- two long-time enemies -- were forced to share a reservation in Wyoming. When tribes refused to move onto the reservations, they were hunted down by the U.S. Army, aided by Indian scouts. But the military did not always come out ahead. General George Custer and all his troops were killed in 1876 when they tracked down a large group of Sioux traveling together. This defeat shocked and humiliated the U.S. government. In return, Army regiments battered Indian villages across the Plains. By the next year, Sioux leaders had been driven into exile or killed. In 1890, soldiers killed over 150 natives at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, during a ceremonial dance. At that point, most Native Americans lost faith and lost the spirit for battle. They would spend the next 50 years as wards of the U.S. government, fighting their battles in the courts for their rights. N-3. Were
the Native American tribes considered separate nations? In 1871, the U.S. government passed a law ending the custom of treating Indian tribes as sovereign nations. They became "wards of the government." Efforts were made to break down tribal unit, supposedly to help the natives adapt to white civilization more easily. For the next 50 years, the government see-sawed back and forth with its policies toward native Americans, sometimes favoring tribal unity and customs, other times a tough approach. O.
LAST OF THE FRONTIER O-1. When
did the frontier end? According to the official U.S. census of 1890, the frontier had disappeared. But this was not true. Many states were still sparsely settled -- Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. Well-known outlaws still robbed trains and banks then disappeared into the uncharted territory to hide out. Large parcels of land were still unsettled. Travel into the central area of Wyoming, for example, was still by horse or wagon. Only a few routes had stagecoaches. Goods still had to be brought over the mountains by wagons pulled by oxen. There was no electricity and no indoor plumbing. The "frontier" did not really end until after World War I. When men returned from battle, they had seen the large American cities on the East Coast -- they had been to Europe -- and they brought with them a desire to improve their lives. New technology -- especially automobiles, electricity, windmills -- helped change the frontier forever. 0-2. Was
there any concern for preserving the frontier? Some men recognized that the American West was a remarkable country, unlike any other. Among them: geologist Ferdinand V. Hayden; photographer William Henry Jackson; painter Thomas Moran; Theodore Roosevelt, son of a wealthy Eastern family, Rough Rider (special soldier) in the Spanish-American War and U.S. President; and John Muir. John Muir's interest was the West Coast -- the incredibly ancient redwood forests and the area that is today known as Yosemite National Park, where he made his home. Ferdinand V. Hayden spent years crossing the American West, gathering specimens of fossils, plants, birds, animals and anything else he thought of interest for the government and its national museum (Smithsonian). In 1870, he was sent to survey Wyoming. He took with him William Henry Jackson, a photographer; and Thomas Moran, a painter. The result was some of the most spectacular photography and art that ever came out of the West. Hayden's report and the photography and art of the Grand Tetons and Yellowstone gave the American public the first glimpse of a spectacular country few had imagined. It helped convince Congress to establish Yellowstone as the first national park in 1872.
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